Tag / astronomy

by David D. Nolte

Frontiers of Physics (2024): Dark Energy Thawing

At the turn of the New Year, as I turn to the breakthroughs in physics of the previous year, sifting through the candidates, I usually narrow it down to about 4 to 6 that I find personally compelling (See, for instance 2023, 2022). In a given year, they may be related to things like supersolids, condensed atoms, or quantum entanglement. Often they relate to those awful, embarrassing gaps in physics knowledge that we give euphemistic names to, like “Dark Energy” and “Dark Matter” (although in the end they may be neither energy nor matter). But this year, as I sifted, I was struck by how many of the “physics” advances of the past year were focused on pushing limits—lower temperatures, more qubits, larger distances.

If you want something that is eventually useful, then engineering is the way to go, and many of the potential breakthroughs of 2024 did require heroic efforts. But if you are looking for a paradigm shift—a new way of seeing or thinking about our reality—then bigger, better and farther won’t give you that. We may be pushing the boundaries, but the thinking stays the same.

Therefore, for 2024, I have replaced “breakthrough” with a single “prospect” that may force us to change our thinking about the universe and the fundamental forces behind it.

This prospect is the weakening of dark energy over time.

It is a “prospect” because it is not yet absolutely confirmed. If it is confirmed in the next few years, then it changes our view of reality. If it is not confirmed, then it still forces us to think harder about fundamental questions, pointing where to look next.

Einstein’s Cosmological “Constant”

Like so much of physics today, the origins of this story go back to Einstein. At the height of WWI in 1917, as Einstein was working in Berlin, he “tweaked” his new theory of general relativity to allow the universe to be static. The tweak came in the form of a parameter he labelled Lambda (Λ), providing a counterbalance against the gravitational collapse of the universe, which at the time was assumed to have a time-invariant density. This cosmological “constant” of spacetime represented a pressure that kept the universe inflated like a balloon.

Fig. 1 Einstein’s “Field Equations” for the universe containing expressions for curvature, the metric tensor and energy density. Spacetime is warped by energy density, and trajectories within the warped spacetime follow geodesic curves. When Λ = 0, only gravitional attraction is present. When Λ ≠ 0, a “repulsive” background force exerts a pressure on spacetime, keeping it inflated like a balloon.

Later, in 1929 when Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe was not static but was expanding, and not only expanding, but apparently on a free trajectory originating at some point in the past (the Big Bang), Einstein zeroed out his cosmological constant, viewing it as one of his greatest blunders.

And so it stood until 1998 when two teams announced that the expansion of the universe is accelerating—and Einstein’s cosmological constant was back in. In addition, measurements of the energy density of the universe showed that the cosmological constant was contributing around 68% of the total energy density, which has been given the name of Dark Energy. One of the ways to measure Dark Energy is through BAO.

Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO)

If the goal of science communication is to be transparent, and to engage the public in the heroic pursuit of pure science, then the moniker Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) was perhaps the wrong turn of phrase. “Cosmic Ripples” might have been a better analogy (and a bit more poetic).

In the early moments after the Big Bang, slight density fluctuations set up a balance of opposing effects between gravitational attraction, that tends to clump matter, and the homogenization effects of the hot photon background, that tends to disperse ionized matter. Matter consists of both dark matter as well as the matter we are composed of, known as baryonic matter. Only baryonic matter can be ionized and hence interact with photons, hence only photons and baryons experience this balance. As the universe expanded, an initial clump of baryons and photons expanded outward together, like the ripples on a millpond caused by a thrown pebble. And because the early universe had many clumps (and anti-clumps where density was lower than average), the millpond ripples were like those from a gentle rain with many expanding ringlets overlapping.

Fig. 2 Overlapping ripples showing galaxies formed along the shells. The size of the shells is set by the speed of “sound” in the universe. From [Ref].
Fig. 3 Left. Galaxies formed on acoustic ringlets like drops of dew on a spider’s web. Right. Many ringlets overlapping. The characteristic size of the ringlets can still be extracted statistically. From [Ref].

Then, about 400,000 years after the Big Bang, as the universe expanded and cooled, it got cold enough that ionized electrons and baryons formed atoms that are neutral and transparent to light. Light suddenly flew free, decoupled from the matter that had constrained it. Removing the balance between light and matter in the BAO caused the baryonic ripples to freeze in place, as if a sudden arctic blast froze the millpond in an instant. The residual clumps of matter in the early universe became clumps of galaxies in the modern universe that we can see and measure. We can also see the effects of those clumps on the temperature fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

Between these two—the BAO and the CMB—it is possible to measure cosmic distances, and with those distances, to measure how fast the universe is expanding.

Acceleration Slowing

The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) on top of Kitt Peak in Arizona is measuring the distances to millions of galaxies using automated fiber optic arrays containing thousands of optical fibers. In one year it measured the distances to about 6 milliion galaxies.

Fig. 4 The Kitt Peak observatory, the site of DESI. From [Ref].

By focusing on seven “epochs” in galaxy formation in the universe, it measures the sizes of the BAO ripples over time, ranging in ages from 3 billion to 11 billion years ago. (The universe is about 13.8 billion years old.) The relative sizes are then compared to the predictions of the LCDM (Lambda-Cold-Dark-Matter) model. This is the “consensus” model of the day—agreed upon as being “most likely” to explain observations. If Dark Energy is a true constant, then the relative sizes of the ripples should all be the same, regardless of how far back in time we look.

But what the DESI data discovered is that relative sizes more recently (a few billion years ago) are smaller than predicted by LCDM. Given that LCDM includes the acceleration of the expansion of the universe caused by Dark Energy, it means that Dark Energy is slightly weaker in the past few billion years than it was 10 billion years ago—it’s weakening or “thawing”.

The measurements as they stand today are shown in Fig. 5, showing the relative sizes as a function of how far back in time they look, with a dashed line showing the deviation from the LCDM prediction. The error bars in the figure are not yet are that impressive, and statistical effects may be causing the trend, so it might be erased by more measurements. But the BAO results have been augmented by recent measurements of supernova (SNe) that provide additional support for thawing Dark Energy. Combined, the BAO+SNe results currently stand at about 3.4 sigma. The gold standard for “discovery” is about 5 sigma, so there is still room for this effect to disappear. So stay tuned—the final answer may be known within a few years.

Fig. 5 Seven “epochs” in the evolution of galaxies in the universe. This plot shows relative galactic distances as a function of time looking back towards the Big Bang (older times closer to the Big Bang are to the right side of the graph). In more recent times, relative distances are smaller than predicted by the consensus theory known as Lambda-Cold-Dark-Matter (LCDM), suggesting that Dark Energy is slight weaker today than it was billions of years ago. The three left-most data points (with error bars from early 2024) are below the LCDM line. From [Ref].
Fig. 6 Annotated version of the previous figure. From [Ref].

The Future of Physics

The gravitational constant G is considered to be a constant property of nature, as is Planck’s constant h, and the charge of the electron e. None of these fundamental properties of physics are viewed as time dependent and none can be derived from basic principles. They are simply constants of our reality. But if Λ is time dependent, then it is not a fundamental constant and should be derivable and explainable.

And that will open up new physics.

by David D. Nolte

Frontiers of Physics: The Year in Review (2023)

These days, the physics breakthroughs in the news that really catch the eye tend to be Astro-centric.  Partly, this is due to the new data coming from the James Webb Space Telescope, which is the flashiest and newest toy of the year in physics.  But also, this is part of a broader trend in physics that we see in the interest statements of physics students applying to graduate school.  With the Higgs business winding down for high energy physics, and solid state physics becoming more engineering, the frontiers of physics have pushed to the skies, where there seem to be endless surprises.

To be sure, quantum information physics (a hot topic) and AMO (atomic and molecular optics) are performing herculean feats in the laboratories.  But even there, Bose-Einstein condensates are simulating the early universe, and quantum computers are simulating worm holes—tipping their hat to astrophysics!

So here are my picks for the top physics breakthroughs of 2023. 

The Early Universe

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has come through big on all of its promises!  They said it would revolutionize the astrophysics of the early universe, and they were right.  As of 2023, all astrophysics textbooks describing the early universe and the formation of galaxies are now obsolete, thanks to JWST. 

Foremost among the discoveries is how fast the universe took up its current form.  Galaxies condensed much earlier than expected, as did supermassive black holes.  Everything that we thought took billions of years seem to have happened in only about one-tenth of that time (incredibly fast on cosmic time scales).  The new JWST observations blow away the status quo on the early universe, and now the astrophysicists have to go back to the chalk board. 

Fig. The JWST artist’s rendering. Image credit.

Gravitational Ripples

If LIGO and the first detection of gravitational waves was the huge breakthrough of 2015, detecting something so faint that it took a century to build an apparatus sensitive enough to detect them, then the newest observations of gravitational waves using galactic ripples presents a whole new level of gravitational wave physics.

Fig. Ripples in spacetime. Image credit.

By using the exquisitely precise timing of distant pulsars, astrophysicists have been able to detect a din of gravitational waves washing back and forth across the universe.  These waves came from supermassive black hole mergers in the early universe.  As the waves stretch and compress the space between us and distant pulsars, the arrival times of pulsar pulses detected at the Earth vary a tiny but measurable amount, haralding the passing of a gravitational wave.

This approach is a form of statistical optics in contrast to the original direct detection that was a form of interferometry.  These are complimentary techniques in optics research, just as they will be complimentary forms of gravitational wave astronomy.  Statistical optics (and fluctuation analysis) provides spectral density functions which can yield ensemble averages in the large N limit.  This can answer questions about large ensembles that single interferometric detection cannot contribute to.  Conversely, interferometric detection provides the details of individual events in ways that statistical optics cannot do.  The two complimentary techniques, moving forward, will provide a much clearer picture of gravitational wave physics and the conditions in the universe that generate them.

Phosphorous on Enceladus

Planetary science is the close cousin to the more distant field of cosmology, but being close to home also makes it more immediate.  The search for life outside the Earth stands as one of the greatest scientific quests of our day.  We are almost certainly not alone in the universe, and life may be as close as Enceladus, the icy moon of Saturn. 

Scientists have been studying data from the Cassini spacecraft that observed Saturn close-up for over a decade from 2004 to 2017.  Enceladus has a subsurface liquid ocean that generates plumes of tiny ice crystals that erupt like geysers from fissures in the solid surface.  The ocean remains liquid because of internal tidal heating caused by the large gravitational forces of Saturn. 

Fig. The Cassini Spacecraft. Image credit.

The Cassini spacecraft flew through the plumes and analyzed their content using its Cosmic Dust Analyzer.  While the ice crystals from Enceladus were already known to contain organic compounds, the science team discovered that they also contain phosphorous.  This is the least abundant element within the molecules of life, but it is absolutely essential, providing the backbone chemistry of DNA as well as being a constituent of amino acids. 

With this discovery, all the essential building blocks of life are known to exist on Enceladus, along with a liquid ocean that is likely to be in chemical contact with rocky minerals on the ocean floor, possibly providing the kind of environment that could promote the emergence of life on a planet other than Earth.

Simulating the Expanding Universe in a Bose-Einstein Condensate

Putting the universe under a microscope in a laboratory may have seemed a foolish dream, until a group at the University of Heidelberg did just that. It isn’t possible to make a real universe in the laboratory, but by adjusting the properties of an ultra-cold collection of atoms known as a Bose-Einstein condensate, the research group was able to create a type of local space whose internal metric has a curvature, like curved space-time. Furthermore, by controlling the inter-atomic interactions of the condensate with a magnetic field, they could cause the condensate to expand or contract, mimicking different scenarios for the evolution of our own universe. By adjusting the type of expansion that occurs, the scientists could create hypotheses about the geometry of the universe and test them experimentally, something that could never be done in our own universe. This could lead to new insights into the behavior of the early universe and the formation of its large-scale structure.

Fig. Expansion of the Universe. Image Credit

Quark Entanglement

This is the only breakthrough I picked that is not related to astrophysics (although even this effect may have played a role in the very early universe).

Entanglement is one of the hottest topics in physics today (although the idea is 89 years old) because of the crucial role it plays in quantum information physics.  The topic was awarded the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics which went to John Clauser, Alain Aspect and Anton Zeilinger.

Direct observations of entanglement have been mostly restricted to optics (where entangled photons are easily created and detected) or molecular and atomic physics as well as in the solid state.

But entanglement eluded high-energy physics (which is quantum matter personified) until 2023 when the Atlas Collaboration at the LHC (Large Hadron Collider) in Geneva posted a manuscript on Arxiv that reported the first observation of entanglement in the decay products of a quark.

Fig. Thresholds for entanglement detection in decays from top quarks. Image credit.

Quarks interact so strongly (literally through the strong force), that entangled quarks experience very rapid decoherence, and entanglement effects virtually disappear in their decay products.  However, top quarks decay so rapidly, that their entanglement properties can be transferred to their decay products, producing measurable effects in the downstream detection.  This is what the Atlas team detected.

While this discovery won’t make quantum computers any better, it does open up a new perspective on high-energy particle interactions, and may even have contributed to the properties of the primordial soup during the Big Bang.